Development of MiG 17

http://aviaros.narod.ru/mig-17.htm
In 1948 in OKB -155 of a.I.Mikoyana was developed the successful destroyer MiG-15, which was produced in large quantities (only in THE USSR at 9 plants). At the proposal I.V.Stalina during this period of work on the creation of the new types of destroyers were convoluted and all efforts were concentrated on further improvement MiG-15. For the purpose of an improvement in the technical flight characteristics in OKB -155 began the work on the equipment of aircraft with new wing with the increased sweepback. At that time to THE USSR several scientific orgnizatsiy conducted the studies of the properties of wing with the sweep angle of 45° according to quarter-chord line, whose application promised essential addition to the speed. Wing was tested in the wind tunnel OF TSAGI - CENTRAL INSTITUTE OF AEROHYDRODYNAMICS IM. N YE ZHUKOVSKIY, on the flying models and the experimental aircraft Of s.A.Lavochkina and M.R.Bisnovata. With the creation of the destroyer, which received designation I -330, it was decided to preserve fuselage MiG-15bis and mate to it new wing. For retaining the centering the wing was executed with the dual sweepback: from the root to the middle of spread of 45°, and it is further - 42° (along quarter-chord line). For an increase in the lift-drag ratio the endings are executed rounded. On the upper surface of consoles it is added on one boundary layer fence. Wing chord ratio is reduced and is improved its joining with the fuselage. The development of aircraft in two versions simultaneously was conducted: tactical fighter and interceptor, but priority returned to the first. The production of the first prototype OF SI was finished during July 1949. After a number of the modifications, which were being continued several months, aircraft of byd it is transmitted to the plant tests. On 14 January, 1950, test pilot OKB -155 Hero of the Soviet Union I.T.Ivashchenko for the first time raised him into the sky from the airfield OF LEAHS in Zhukovskiy. 1 fevral.z on SI at a height 10200 m was achieved the speed of sound. After loss Ivashchenko and the prototype OF SI in the catastrophe on 17 March the tests were continued By g.A.Serovym on the prototype SI -2. The flutter of the tail assembly and the reverse of ailerons were revealed during the tests at high speed. Tests were interrupted for conducting the modifications of construction. In 1951 in Gor'kiy at the plant of №2y were prepared 2 additional prototypes, on which were continued the plant tests. During April 1951 the prototype OF SI -02 was transmitted in the GK NII VVS - State Red Banner Scientific Testing Institute of the Air Force for conducting official tests. It was noted according to the results of tests, that the aircraft with the new wing possesses higher speed and skoropod"emnos'yu, best maneuverability at a high altitude. In this case the maneuverability at the low altitude and takeoff and landing characteristics somewhat deteriorated. After introduction in the construction of a number of modifications the aircraft was rekomendovan into the series production. Initially was assumed production at the plant of №292 in Saratov. But by the order MAP of №8shchy of 1 September, 1951, aircraft under the designation MiG-17 was neglected into the production at the plants of №2y (Gor'kiy), №y (Kuybyshev), №ey (Tbilisi), №yshche (Novosibirsk) and №y2' (Komsomol'sk-on- Amur). It is for the first time demonstrated to the public on 20 June, 1953, at the air display in Tushino. MiG-17 it is built according to the aerodynamic configuration of midwing monoplane. Construction is all-metal (in basic from duralumin D16- T, the separate knots made of steel E0KHGSA). Fuselage is cigar-shaped of round cross section of the type semi-monocoque. Wing is arrow-shaped (45° along quarter-chord line in the root 42° in the end). The high-lift device of wing consisted of the extension flaps and ailerons. The trim tab is established on the left aileron. For increasing the directional stability on the upper wing surface the boundary layer fences are established (3 on each console). In the tail section of ustanavleny speed brakes. Stabilizer had a sweepback of 45°, a keel - shchshch°yay '. Small false keel is established under the aft fuselage section for the best directional stability. Chassis is tripod with the nose steadfast. Power plant consisted of TRD - TURBOJET ENGINE VK -1 (VK -1A, VK -1F). Air duct of frontal with 2 channels, which envelope cab. The tail end of the fuselage was taken apart for the access to the engine with the maintenance on the earth. Airtight cockpit was equipped with the system of heating and with catapult armchair. For an increase in the flying range under the wing could be hung up by 2 PTB on 400 or 600 l. on the interceptors in the forward fuselage it was established RLS. The composition of armament changed depending on modification and were included guns N -37 (N -37D), NR -30, NR -23, rockets RS -1U (K -5), RES (K -13), S -21, free-falling bombs by caliber to 250 kg. MiG-17 entered into service it was regimental VVS, PVO - AIR DEFENSE and VMF, it were exploited in the aero clubs OF DOSAAF - ALL-UNION VOLUNTARY SOCIETY FOR ASSISTANCE TO THE ARMY, AIR FORCE, AND NAVY. The retraining of pilots, those previously flown on MiG-15, passed without the problems. Like predecessor, MiG-17 was characterized by simplicity of control and it was accessible to the pilots of average qualification. In the operation the aircraft appeared itself by very reliable and simple in the maintenance, and the reliability of its engine became simply legendary (VK -1 maintained the entry of birds and foreign objects). In the 50- years MiG-17 it was the basis of Soviet fighter aircraft. It participated in many large military maneuvers (in such cases with the application of nuclear weapons on The totskom range on 14 September, 1954), in the Hungarian and Czechoslovak events. Interceptors MiG-17P/PF repeatedly intercepted intruders and razvedivatel'nye sounding balloons. The first air victory on MiG-17 was gained on 29 July, 1953, when the pair of aircraft of 88 gviap VVS KTOF intercepted above the Ussuri molded edge and brought down the American intelligence officer Rb -50. since 1960 of shelf on MiG-17 they began to be transferred to the newly organized fighter-bomber aviation. Longer anything Soviet MiG-17 were exploited in Armavirskom VVAUL PVO - AIR DEFENSE - up to 1977. In the line units some aircraft served even prior to the beginning of the 80th it was annual. Some MiG-17 with the taken armament were transmitted to the training centers OF DOSAAF - ALL-UNION VOLUNTARY SOCIETY FOR ASSISTANCE TO THE ARMY, AIR FORCE, AND NAVY. Many aircraft at the end of the period of service were re-equipped into the radio-controlled targets. Series production continued up to 1958. In all at five plants are prepared 8085 aircraft MiG-17 all modifications. After appearance MiG-19 it were constructed only for the export. It were let out on license in China (1828 aircraft) and Poland (540). Production in Czechoslovakia was planned. It were supplied in the export into Albania, Algeria, Angola, Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bulgaria, Hungary, Vietnam, Guinea, Guinea- Bisau, GDR, Egypt, Zambia, Zimbabwe, India, Indonesia, Iraq, Yemen, Kampuchea, China, PDRK - PEOPLE'S DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF KOREA, Congo, Cuba, Madagascar, Malagasy republic, Mali, Morocco, Mozambique, Mongolia, PDRY - PEOPLE'S DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF YEMEN, Nigeria, Pakistan, Poland, Rumania, Syria, Somalia, Sudan, USA, Tanzania, Uganda, Finland, Czechoslovakia, Shri-Lanku, Yugoslavia. In the process of production constantly it were modernized: fuel system was finished, form and area of speed brakes changed, catapult armchair with the shutter and changed movable part of the lamp was established from the end of 1953, the content of equipment and armament changed. MiG-17 and J -5 (F -5) participated in the numerous local conflicts: Arabo-Isreali wars, in Vietnam, Afghanistan, to the West Sahara, Burkina- front, Iran- Iraqi, ugandiЯko- Tanzanian, Ethiopian- Somali wars, Civil Wars in South Yemen, Angola, Nigeria, Mozambique, etc. In some camps of the third peace MiG-17 it continues to remain in arsenal and now. At present MiG-17 it is the exhibit of museum VVS into Monino, MiG-17M - museum VVS of northern fleet. Several aircraft are used as the teaching aids in military and civil aviation VUZ - Institute of Higher Education.

Generation of Jet Fighters

Russian Force | That such "generation" of fighters: "WHAT IS 'GENERATION' OF FIGHTERS After the Second world war the Soviet and American fighters on set of fighting and flight qualities began to share on 'generations'. Though this concept is applied basically concerning the Soviet and American combat material, the European machines(cars), basically, too can be entered in this system of coordinates. Fighters which concern to one generation, possess comparable fighting opportunities, by their development designers apply similar technical decisions and consequently it is frequent they are simply similar against each other. Naturally, input in build fighting machines(cars) of one generation occured(happened) approximately at a time though the USSR, as a rule, put them on arms with some backlog from Americans. MiG-15bis fighter (63 Kb) Fighter МиГ-15бис The first post-war generation of fighters has appeared in 50th years. It were subsonic jet planes without radars, with only one radiosights. The most known Soviet fighter of the first generation is МиГ-15 which became well-known during war in Korea where to it(him) resisted American F-86 «Сейбр». The first post-war generation was considered modern up to the middle of 60th years, but was applied in operations also in the beginning 70.

Fighter МиГ-21ПФМ

Rather successful there was a fighter of second generation МиГ-21 which accepted active participation in operations in Vietnam and in the арабо-Israeli conflicts. The American analogue of same generation F-104 has received among the American, Canadian and German pilots sad nickname Widowmaker — « the maker of widows ». МиГ-21 rather successfully resisted in Vietnam and in the Near East to very powerful and effective American fighter F-4 Phantom which on the ТТХ came nearer to machines(cars) already the third generation. МиГ-21 it has appeared so successful, that till now tens these fighters remain on arms of some the countries. In India МиГ-21 have passed(have taken place) deep modernization and, having received a new, modern radar and the hi-tech Israeli equipment of radio-electronic struggle, quite successfully act in educational fights against more modern machines. Tens МиГ-21 still serve in the Syrian and Vietnamese Air Forces. In the Europe it is possible to carry the French fighters of series Mirage to the second generation III.

	Fighter МиГ-23

The basic Soviet fighter of the third generation became МиГ-23 with a wing changeable стреловидности. This plane without special success participated in military actions during the арабо-Israeli war of 1982, was applied to covering Soviet штурмовиков in Afghanistan. The European fighters of the third generation became French Mirage F1 (the ирано-Iraq war and Chad) and Swedish Viggen.

Serious technological break has been accomplished at transition from the third to the fourth generation to which in the USA concern F-15 and F-16, and in the USSR/Russia — Су-27 and МиГ-29. At a development cycle of machines(cars) of the fourth generation both Soviet, and the American Air Forces send(have passed) to a two-compound configuration, which includes formation of park by lungs (F-16 and МиГ-29) and heavy (F-15 and Су-27) fighters. Fighters of the fourth generation possess an opportunity of application of arms загоризонтной range (BVR-capabilities) and have qualitatively higher in comparison with planes of the third generation maneuverable qualities. Feature of some of fighters of the fourth generation (for example, Су-27) is realization at their designing the concept of longitudinal static instability (electronic stability) which too works in favour of sharp increase in maneuverable qualities. Designing of fighters of the fourth generation has begun to the USSR and the USA in the end

Fighter МиГ-29

60th years, the first flights of prototypes — in the middle 70, acceptance on arms — in the end 70 in the USA and in 1982-1984 in the USSR. Fighters of the fourth generation of the American manufacture for the first time have been applied in fighting conditions by Israel. On June, 7th, 1981 F-16 the Israeli Air Forces under covering F-15 have destroyed as a result of sudden spot-check in air space of Iraq research nuclear center Осирак. Then they took part(participated) in the Lebanese war of 1982. These machines(cars) of later versions were applied in all subsequent confrontations, first of all in operation « the Storm in desert » and impacts across Iraq and Yugoslavia.

In connection with fast development of electronics at simultaneous preservation of successful platforms F-15, F-18, F-16 and Russian Су-27 and МиГ-29 in Russia it is accepted to allocate a special category of fighters of generation 4 +. Under the characteristics later are close to these modernized machines(cars) French Rafale and European Typhoon.

	Models	The basic qualities	Participation in operations
The first generation	МиГ-15, МиГ-17, F-86, Ouragan, Mistere	Subsonic speed, absence of radars	The Korean war (1950-1953), Suez crisis (1956)
The second generation	МиГ-21, F-104, Mirage III, Draken	Supersonic speed	The Vietnamese war (1964-1973), six-day war (1967), the индо-Pakistan war (1971), war of the Doomsday (1973)
The third generation	МиГ-23, F-4 Phantom, Mirage F1, Viggen	Use of radars of the raised(increased) capacity(power), rocket with radar-tracking prompting average and big range	The ¿Óá¡«-Iraq war (1980-1988)
The fourth generation	Су-27, МиГ-29, F-16, F-15, Mirage 2000, Gripen	Excellent(Different) maneuverable characteristics, greater(big) тяговооруженность	Operations " the World to Galilee " (1982), " the Storm in desert " (1991), эфиопо-эритрейская war (1999-2000)
Generation 4 +	Су-30МКИ, Су-35, МиГ-29СМТ, МиГ-35, Rafale, Typhoon, F-18E/F, F-16E/F	Supermaneuverability, radars with the passive slot-hole or phased lattice, the lowered cost of operation, multifunctionality, a "glass" cabin	Aggression against Yugoslavia (1999), the second Iraq war (2003)
The fifth generation	F-22, F-35, T-50	Small заметность in various physical fields, a cruiser supersound, высокоинтегрированные control systems of plane and the weapon, a fighter-element of " system of systems ", a radar with an active lattice	—
Source: the Center of nuclear heating plant.

MIG-15 VUELVE A VOLAR

A gift of MiG 15 to USAF

http://lankov.oriental.ru/d110.shtml
This first flight occurred soon after the conclusion of truce, on 21 September, 1953, when the Lieutenant OF VVS OF PDRK - PEOPLE'S DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF KOREA but Kym- juice ran to Seoul on his MiG-15. For the American reconnaissance his appearance became the present gift: mikoyanovskiy MIG-15 was then one of the best destroyers of peace, and for the first time this machine it fell into the hands of the American specialists of that not injured. Itself but Kym- juice obtained 100.000 dollars (astronomical sum, taking into account inflation equivalent to several of present million dollars) and American citizenships. It it used, having immediately moved in THE USA to the residence. In the course of time but the Kym- juice became noticeable aeronautical engineer, it taught at the university, now it left to the pension.

Secrets of Russian weapon - red emperor

http://rutube.ru/tracks/112109.html?v=aaa72510c3e3edf03215fefe5e4ed880

MiG 15 in Russian Tube

Ла-15 - Авиация. Музей в Монино. - gumenuk - Fotoplenka.ru

Ла-15 - Авиация. Музей в Монино. - gumenuk - Fotoplenka.ru: "Ла-15"

MiG 25

http://www.testpilot.ru/russia/mikoyan/mig/25/mig25.htm
In the second-half of the 50th is annual OKB Of a.I.Mikoyana it approached the works on the creation of heavy high-speed and high-altitude fighter-interceptors E -150, E -152 (E -166) and E -152M, intended for dealing with the promising supersonic bombers. In the course of the tests of these machines the speed of 2680 km/h and ceiling 22670 m was achieved, the practical finalizing of promising weapon systems was conducted. The obtained reserve made it possible to approach the creation of the more powerful combat aircraft, capable of destroying such purposes as bombers Convair V -58 "Hustler" and North American KHV-"0" Valkyrie ", and also reconnaisance aircraft Lockheed Sr -71 (in THE USSR about existence of this top secret program it became known in 1960, in two years prior to the first flight of the American of mashiny).E-yshchshchP the study of the appearance of new aircraft began BY OKB -155 together with TSAGI - CENTRAL INSTITUTE OF AEROHYDRODYNAMICS IM. N YE ZHUKOVSKIY and other branch scientific centers the countries in 1959, and in 1961 was accepted the fundamental solution about the creation of the machine, which received working index E. Were examined the diverse variants of layout - with one- and twin endplate fins, with PGO, by the wing of the variable geometry, by lift engines and the like as a result Of a.I.Mikoyan selected normal aerodynamic configuration with the twin endplate fins and the highly placed tapered wing. In the Party spirit- government decision on program E -155 left during February 1961, and on 10 March of the same year Mikoyan published order on OKB about the beginning of the design of new machine. Works headed M.I.Gurevich, which subsequently replaced chief designer n.Z.Matyuk. E -155 from the very beginning was developed in three versions (fighter-interceptor (E -155P), high-altitude intelligence officer (E -155R) and carrier BR (E -155N)), that have the minimum structural differences (from the last version more lately they refused). In this case was posed the problem of creating combat aircraft, capable of carrying out cruise at a velocity, which corresponds Of m=2,shch-e,0, which indicated overcoming the "thermal barrier", since temperature of stagnation with M=2,8e composes 290oS.E-yshchshchPy significant problem it presented the selection of power plant for the new machine. Was examined the possibility of using the promising engines OF OKB Of p.A.Kolesova and A.M.Lyul'ki, that are located in the stage of development. However, subsequently selection was stopped on TRDF - TURBOJET ENGINE WITH AFTERBURNER OF RYSHCHB-E00 Of a.A.Mikulina, which was the development of the short-life engine of yshchK, created for pilotless LA ("121" and "123" Tupolev) and finished on E -150 and E -152. Stainless high-temperature (strength) steel was selected as the basic construction material. Fighter-interceptor E -155P had to interact with the automated system of ground guidance "air -1". It it was intended to equip BRLS of "water spout", the created on the base station "water spout", established on the interceptor Tu-128. The initially basic armament of new aircraft had to become rockets K -9M; however, subsequently it was decided to employ the new rockets K -40, prepared with the use of titanium alloys. The work of model commission for E -155P began in 1962, on 15 June, 1963, was affirmed technical task for the interceptor. The first flight of experimental aircraft E -155P took place on 9 September, 1964, (test pilot P.M.Ostapenko), half a year after the beginning of the flight tests of intelligence officer E -155R. The joint official tests of interceptor were begun during December 1965 and were completed during April 1970. During September 1969 the fighter-interceptor under the polygon conditions with the aid of the rocket R -40R for the first time brought down real flight vehicle - airborne target MiG-155P1 testings of fundamentally new machine they tightened themselves. On 30 October 1967 g, with an attempt at the establishment of the record of rate of climb, perished the chief test pilot HII OF VVS Colonel I.I.Lesnikov. On 26 April, 1969, on MiG-25P, which piloted the air force commander PVO - AIR DEFENSE General Anatoliy kadomtsev, arose the fire of engine and pilot perished. The detachment of the turbine blade became the reason for fire, and by consequence - delay of the beginning of the series production of aircraft, modification of engine and establishment of the new limitation of permissible temperatures on the turbine. On 13 June, 1972, to the armament was accepted the complex of interception MiG-40 in the composition: aircraft-interceptor MiG-25P (article 84), the rockets R -40 of class "air-to-air", the system of radio-command earth based guidance "azure" and so forth in 1973 were completed troop tests. The number of changes was introduced on the sums of plant and official tests into the construction of aircraft and engine. In particular, to wing they gave the negative dihedral angle, equal to -5°, established the increased "fins" on the ends of the consoles (from which then they refused, after increasing the area of keels and after decreasing the surface of the crests under the fuselage), they introduced the differentially slanted stabilizer. The modification of stabilizer cost the life of test pilot. On 4 October, 1973, during the airport approach at the height of 500 m and at the high speed Of o.V.Gudkov it broke, after entering into the unguided rotation. MiG-25P6 with UR R -40 series output of aircraft they unrolled in 1971 at the Gor'kiy plant № of 21 (aviation production association im. Sergo of Ordzhonikidze; now Nizhniy-Novgorod state aircraft factory "falcon") in the cooperation with The dubninskim Machine Building Plant (in the course of building the first series there were made the fuselages of the destroyers, which then along the Volga were transported into the the g.Gor'kiy for the final assembling). Since the beginning of the 70th it is annual MiG-25P they began to enter the combatant fighter aviation units of air defense forces. For the creation of aircraft MiG-25 the group of six designers obtained the Lenin prize. These were: Rostislav belyakov, Hikola1 Matyuk, Fedor shukhov (designer of engine R -15B-300), Fedor volkov (designer OF RP-2SHCH of "water spout"), Ivan silayev (the works manager № of 21 in Gor'kiy) and Aleksey minayev (designer of control system). The appearance of new destroyers sharply decreased the activity of American intelligence officers Lockheed Sr -71, it is earlier than very "boldly" approached borders of the Soviet Union in the north and the Far East. On the basis of operating experience began the work on the modernization RLS of "water spout" into the versions "water spout -A1", "the water spout -A2", "Water spout- AE" and "water spout -A4". In the process of modernization some possibilities of target detection against the background of earth and reduction in the height of the intercepted purposes appeared. On 6 September, 1976, occurred the event, which substantially influenced the fate of the interceptor: Senior Lieutenant V.Belenko completed overflight on MiG-25P into Japan, after landing in the airport of Khakodate on Hokkaido island and after making thus secret aircraft by the property of American specialists. Despite the fact that the machine was soon returned BY THE USSR, Americans had time to thoroughly become acquainted with construction and BREO of interceptor, in consequence of which soon, on 4 November, 1976, followed the decision of government about the urgent modification of aircraft, which is concerned first of all of the radical modernization of its weapon system. Work on the creation of the new modification of fighter-interceptor was executed within the shortest periods and, in 1977, was once released the finished interceptor MiG-25PD. In 1978 Gor'kiy aircraft factory began its series output of aircraft. From 1979 through 1982 all MiG-25P the Soviet AIR FORCE passed re-equipment at the repair plants into the version MiG-25PDS, appropriate MiG-25PD. E -155P5 (1967) with UR R -40Rekordy MiG-25 was the first in the world series destroyer, which reached the boundary of the velocity of 3000 km/h. It became record holder according to the number of established world records (29), of them 3 - absolute. In contrast to Sr -71, on MiG-25 with the speed of 2,shchM and weight 30 T. were allowed the overloads to 5g. this it allowed it to establish speed records on the short closed routes. During November of 1967 M.M.Komarov flew 500- km the closed route with an average speed of 2930 km/h. In THE FAYES record version MiG-25 was registered as by E -266. Of modifications for the instruction of crew into 1969 was created and neglected into a series combat training aircraft MiG-25PU. In the middle of the 60th conducted the work on the creation of the modification of destroyer E -155PA, capable of intercepting the targets, which fly at the speed to 3500-4000 km/h and the heights of 100-30000 m. In 1972 the work on the modernization of interceptor was continued, and new E -155M (E -266M) established 6 world records. State. MiG-25 in series it were let out from 1969 through 1982. Were built 1190 aircraft MiG-25 all modifications, including it is more than 900 interceptors MiG-25P and MiG-25PDwarnings E-150, E-152 E-152M dВ-58 «Хастлер» и Норт Америкэн ХВ-70 XB-70 " Lockheed SR-71

world records

МиГ-25ПУ MiG-25PU.
Е-155ПА , Е-155М ( E-155M (E-266M)

МиГ-15, ru

MiG 15 Korean war in Russian

http://rutube.ru/tracks/112109.html?v=aaa72510c3e3edf03215fefe5e4ed880

全社会客货运输量(2007年8月)

全社会客货运输量(2007年8月): 单位 8月 比上年同月 增长% 1-8月 比上年同期 增长%
货运量合计 亿吨 18.45 12.1 141.10 12.1
铁 路 亿吨 2.65 6.7 20.70 10.1
公 路 亿吨 13.54 13.2 103.32 12.3
水 运 亿吨 2.25 12.4 17.05 13.2
民 航 万吨 34.56 15.4 249.14 14.6

A growth of >10% is significant in every sense. Buy 2828, 2823, 2838

YouTube - US Pilots meet Russian Jets over Korea

YouTube - US Pilots meet Russian Jets over Korea

Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15 (Ji-2)

FAGOT B

Wingspan 10.08 m (33 ft 1 ½ in) Length 10.1 m (33 ft 1 ¾ in) Height 3.37 m (10 ft 10 in) Weight 3,523 kg (7,767 lb) empty

http://www.nasm.si.edu/research/aero/aircraft/mig15.htm

Designed in 1946 to answer Soviet premier Joseph Stalin's urgent call for a high-altitude day interceptor, the MiG-15 was destined to shock the West with its capabilities and make the acronym "MiG" synonymous with "Soviet fighter plane." It was the first Soviet jet to benefit from the British sale to Russia of the new Rolls Royce "Nene" and "Derwent" jet engines. These were immediately copied and refined by the Soviets, and as the RD-500, Klimov RD-45 and modified VK-1, they gave a powerful boost to Soviet jet technology.

First flown on December 30, 1947, the MiG-15 featured the first production swept wing on a Russian aircraft, the first pressurized cockpit, and the first ejection seat. Although Mikoyan and Gurevitch were aware of German turbojet and swept-wing work, this design was wholly Russian--except for the engine. The Cold War had just begun and Stalin was readying the B-29 clone, the Tu-4, and was developing the atomic bomb, both in high-priority programs. MiG-15 production was authorized in March 1948, only 3 months after first test flight, and substantial numbers were in service by the end of 1948 with the both Soviet Air Forces (VVS, the tactical air arm) and IA-PVO (the air defense arm).

Late in 1950, MiG-15s piloted by Russians appeared over North Korea, and their prowess "shocked and stunned" Americans. Their deadly attacks, using one 37mm and two 23mm cannon, quickly ran all piston-engined aircraft from the skies, including the B-29. First generation jets like the F-80 and F-84 were no match, and America had to rush the F-86 into Korea to reestablish air superiority. Despite its high speed, excellent maneuverability, and high service ceiling, the MiG-15 was not very stable as a gun platform, with a tendency to Dutch roll at high speeds because of wing flexing and poor aileron effectiveness. Its cockpit instrumentation was primitive and stick forces were heavy. In combat against the F-86, a much more advanced fighter but with very similar performance, the MiG-15 suffered a 10:1 loss ratio.

Russians were joined by Chinese and North Korean MiG-15s before the Korean War ended, and the MiG-15 was ultimately flown in some 35 countries, remaining in service in China as late as 1978, where it was called the J-2 (F-2 in an export version). The MiG-15UTI trainer version, also used throughout the world, is still in common service today. More than 12,000 MiG-15s were built in 17 versions, in Poland, Czechoslovakia, and China, as well as in the USSR. Many Chinese F-2s have made their way to the United States, where they can be seen in flight displays at air shows. Based on lessons of the Korean combat, the MiG-15 was later upgraded as the MiG-17, which also served throughout the world, including combat in Vietnam and the Middle East.

MiG vs Sabre Which is better

http://home.att.net/~jbaugher1/p86_11.html
Which was the better fighter, the Sabre or the MiG? As in most questions of this type, the answer is--it depends!

Throughout the Korean war, American intelligence on the capabilities of the MiG-15 was limited largely to Sabre pilots' fleeting impressions of the Russian-built aircraft when they encountered it in combat. These impressions were reinforced by a description of a MiG-15 flown to Denmark in March of 1953 by a Polish defector, and also by the examination of a wrecked MiG salvaged from 17 feet of water off the North Korean coast in July of 1951.

On September 21, 1953, Lt. No Kum-Suk of the Korean People's Armed Forces Air Corps defected to the South along with his MiG-15bis. This presented the USAF with its first flyable example of its MiG-15 opponent, and gave US intelligence the first chance to compare its initial impressions with actual flight test data. The MiG was dismantled and flown to Okinawa aboard a C-124 Globemaster. There, it was reassembled and flown by a crew of experienced test pilots including Maj. Gen. Albert B. Boyd, Major Charles E. "Chuck" Yeager, and Capt H. E. Collins. The MiG was painted with USAF markings, and was assigned the fictitious serial number "616", because Capt. Collins had used this same number on a plane he had once flown. The actual MiG serial number was 2015357. This aircraft was later flown to Wright Patterson Air Force Base in Ohio. Lt. No's MiG-15bis is currently on display at the Wright Patterson Air Force Base Museum, painted in its original North Korean markings. The test flights confirmed the initial impressions of combat pilots in Korea. The MiG-15 was faster than the F-86A and F-86E at altitudes above 30,000 feet, but slower at lower altitudes. Early F-86Fs were superior in speed to the MiG only up to 35,000 feet, whereas the "6-3" F-86Fs were faster than their MiG opponents all the way up to the Sabre's service ceiling.

One of the primary advantages of the MiG over the Sabre was its 4000-foot advantage in service ceiling. It would often happen that F-86s would enter MiG Alley at 40,000 feet, only to find MiGs circling 10,000 feet above them. There was nothing that the Sabre pilots could do unless the MiGs decided to come down and do battle. The high-flying MiGs could pick the time and place of battle, and their higher speed at high altitudes enabled them to break off combat at will when things got too tight. Many a MiG escaped destruction by being able to flee across the Yalu where the Sabres were forbidden to pursue.

The Sabre was much heavier than the MiG and had a superior diving speed. Both the MiG and the F-86 could go supersonic in a dive, but the Sabre was much more stable than the MiG in the transonic speed regime. One way for a Sabre to shake a MiG sitting on its tail was for the F-86 pilot to open his throttle all the way up and go over into a dive, pulling its pursuer down to lower altitudes where the F-86 had a performance advantage. Above Mach 0.86, the MiG-15 suffered from severe directional snaking, which made the aircraft a poor gun platform at these high speeds. Buffeting in the MiG began at Mach 0.91, and a nose-up tendency initiated at Mach 0.93. The high-speed stability problems of the MiG-15 were so severe that it was not all that uncommon for a MiG to go into the transonic regime during an air battle, only to lose its entire vertical tail assembly during violent combat maneuvering. The rate of roll of the MiG was too slow, and lateral-directional stability was poor at high altitudes and speeds.

One of the most serious weaknesses of the MiG-15 was its tendency to go into uncontrollable spins, especially in the hands of inexperienced pilots. Many Sabre victories in Korea were scored without the F-86 pilots ever having to fire their guns--they merely forced their MiG opponents into spins from which their pilots could not recover. An experienced MiG pilot could get himself out of a spin, but the aircraft was somewhat unstable and lacked good stall warning properties.

The turning radius of the MiG was good, somewhat better than that of the F-86A, E and early F. However, this advantage was largely eliminated by the advent of the "6-3" wing of the later F-86F. The good turning radius of the MiG was compromised by poor stalling characteristics. These bad stalling characteristics could get a green MiG pilot into serious trouble during the stress of a dogfight, causing his fighter to suddenly stall, go into an uncontrollable spin, and fall out of the sky.

In contrast, the spinning characteristics of the Sabre were excellent, and gave most pilots no trouble at all. If the F-86 was forced into a spin, recovery was usually effected by simply neutralizing the controls.

The MiG-15 armament of one 37-mm N-37 cannon and two 23-mm NR-23 guns was designed for attacking bombers, and was not really intended for use against fighters. Forty rounds of 37-mm ammunition and 160 rounds of 23-mm ammunition were carried, a rather low ammunition capacity. The 37-mm gun fired at a rate of 450 rpm, whereas the 23-mm guns each fired at a rate of 650 rpm. The MiG's armament had a good punch, but the rate of fire was too slow to make it effective against nimble, rapidly-maneuvering fighters. In contrast, the F-86's armament of six 0.50-in machine guns had a rapid firing rate and the aircraft carried an ample supply of ammunition. However, the machine guns of the Sabre lacked the stopping power of the MiG's cannon. It was not uncommon for a Sabre pilot to empty all 1600 rounds of his ammunition at a MiG, only to see it escape unscathed.

The gunsight of the MiG-15 was of the simple gyro type, similar to that of the early F-86A. It lacked any radar ranging capability. The radar ranging gunsight of the later Sabres made the F-86 a much more accurate gun platform than the MiG, but this accuracy was sometimes wasted because of the low weight of fire from the machine guns.

The MiG was much lighter than the Sabre, weighing only 11,070 pounds loaded. The take off run to clear a 50-foot obstacle was only 2500 feet, as compared with 3660 feet for the F-86A.

Internal fuel capacity of the MiG was 372 US gallons, compared with 435 gallons for the Sabre. This gave the MiG a range of 480 miles, which could be increased to 675 miles with drop tanks.

During the Korean War, 792 MiG-15s were destroyed by F-86 pilots, with 118 probables being claimed. 78 Sabres were definitely lost in air-to-air combat against the MiGs, with a further 13 Sabres being listed as missing in action. This is about a ten-to-one superiority. From this result, one might naturally conclude that the F-86 was the superior fighter. However, a factor which must also be considered is the relative level of experience and competence of the opposing pilots. The US Sabre pilots were all highly trained and competent airmen, many of whom had extensive World War 2 combat experience. With the exception of some Russian World War 2 veterans who flew MiG fighters in Korea, the MiG pilots were often sent into combat with only minimal flying experience. MiG pilots often exercised poor combat discipline. During the course of battle, MiG pilots would often break off into confusion and panic, firing wildly, and leaving their wingmen unprotected. Often, a MiG pilot in trouble would eject from his plane before anyone actually shot at him. Many MiG pilots were so inexperienced that in the heat of battle they would end up getting themselves into uncontrollable spins and crashing. At times, MiG pilots would fire their cannon in an attempt to lighten their loads, without really aiming at anything. Most of the MiG pilots were extremely wary of combat, and usually did not attempt to fight unless they saw an advantage opening up. In contrast, the Sabre pilots were aggressive and eager for combat, and wanted nothing more than for the MiGs to come over the Yalu so that they could add to their scores.

So, which plane would you rather be sitting in, the MiG-15 or the F-86? Perhaps Chuck Yeager said it best--"It isn't the plane that is important in combat, it's the man sitting in it."

Study of Captured F86 by Soviet Colonel Evgueni Pepeliaev

http://www.fr.rian.ru/analysis/20070615/67300859.html

It was at the beginning of the years 1950, in the Korean sky, when the Soviet and American pilots became for the first time of the adversaries. "In the absolute secrecy we were dispatched in Korea, country in full war at the time, remembers Evgueni Pepeliaev. - We engaged in the operations on April 1, 1951. I ordered the 196e regiment of hunting. At the time, the Americans entirely controlled the sky. Even their bombers did not fear to operate day. Before our arrival, the American pilots drove out not only vehicles on the roads but also civil, Korean the and Chinese ones, while drawing on them. Two months afterwards, we put a term at their superiority. Their bombers stopped flying in full day. The Americans started to equip their units by the very recent hunter F-86 Sabre. We flew on the Mig. From the point of view of the performances, the two apparatuses were almost with equality, but each one had, obviously, its advantages. The Mig was higher in the vertical combat, thanks to a higher ceiling. The American hunter, thanks to a better aerodynamics, was more maneuverable horizontally. The difference in maximum speeds was negligible. The Mig had a superiority crushing in fire power on any American hunter of the time. The Sabre had very poor weapons compared to the Mig, but its automatic sight was without equal. The Mig exceeded also the American hunter of viability. I remember that pilots were posed while returning of missions with forty holes in their apparatuses! With two recoveries, my plane was touched. The pilots of my regiment achieved nearly 4.000 missions on the whole. With their credit, 108 enemy planes cut down. Our losses amounted to 10 Mig Four of my pilots died, six succeeded in being ejected. In other words, my 196e regiment, in the aerial combats with the US Air Force, had a score of victories from 1 to 10 in our favour. Usually, between twelve and thirty-five Soviet hunters took share with the aerial combats against Sabres. The Americans made a point of restoring their air superiority. But, reacting painfully to the losses, they often gave up the combat. My notebook contains notes on 108 missions and 39 aerial combats. On the whole, I cut down 23 planes. With their number, two F-94 Starfire, F-80 Shooting Star, F-84 Thunderjet, and the remainder it was of F-86 Sabre. All these planes belonged to the US Air Force. Very fighter pilot keeps in general in his memory the engagements where it failed to be cut down itself. A combat is held at very high speeds and with colossal overloads, the pilots suffer from sight trouble and lose consciousness from it. It is once on the ground which one remembers certain episodes of an air duel. It was one morning of July 1951. Eight reconnaissance aircraft F-94 regained their aerodrome in two four, at an altitude of 8.000 meters. We fell apart and, of start, after a turn of combat, we engaged a bringing together. I caught up with them 4 minutes after the take-off, making the decision to attack with a group of four planes under my orders the four F-94 of behind. To the commander of the second flotilla, I gave the order to attack the four of front. I saw my shells well reaching the belly of F-94, fragments of his coating to be detached one after the other in the explosions. Another F-94 which flew on my left, entered a deep spiral. I continued it. I remember very well that in spiral, to a distance of 100 meters or even slightly more, I sent an average gust to him, so as to tear off his tail. At full speed, I entered remains. Fortunately that I lowered the head, they did not touch me. By way of proof of our victories, one brought on the aerodrome of the elements of the planes which we cut down. This empennage of F-94 was also deposited to him. I remember to have cut down on October 6, 1951 a Sabre which had thereafter to be posed urgently on the territory of the North Korea. I practised a maneuver diversion which I had worked out well in times of peace. It always made a success of me. In course of collision, I showed with the adversary that I engaged a turn of upward combat on the left, but actually I left on the right. Thus, after a turn, F-86 was found opposite me, at a distance from 80 to 100 meters. After my maneuvre, I saw the Sabre in my collimator. I sent a gust in his direction. I saw one of my shells immediately touching the plane behind the canopy of the cabin. The plane fell but the pilot knew to pose it on a bank. This Sabre was led on our aerodrome from where it was sent in Moscow. My pilots and me we could go up in his cabin which had remained intact. This Sabre rendered a great service to us. The Americans had air ventilated suits which enabled them to support the overloads much more easily and to be tired. At the time, we did not have such clothing yet, on the other hand, those of the trophies already did not miss. But we did not have the governor automatically-controlled which had remained on the cut down aircraft. "My" Sabre had a perfect gyroscopic horizon. The Mig at the time were equipped with a bad apparatus. To the pilot, it did not make it possible to make a band of more than 40°. There was indeed evil to be directed, by forming large angles of rise and descent. As for our engineers, this Sabre their provided matter to reflexion. On the Mig, there was already a normal gyroscopic horizon and a good sight. The study of the engine of the Sabre was also great utility. Colonel Evgueni Pepeliaev, Hero of the Soviet Union, 89 years, lives in Moscow. He is known as the author of a book with success, "the Mig ones against the Sabres", on the air war in Korea (1950-1953). Remarks collected by Iouri Ploutenko

Have drill & Have ferry & Have doughnut

DETAILED THREAT KNOWLEDGE

The heritage of Foreign Materiel Exploitation
1945 - Exploiting The ME-262
The Problem with the Russians

A Dream Come True
MiG-15bis Flown by No Kum Sok defected on 21 September 1953
Most important technical intelligence of the 1950s: Validated our methods

Testing the MiG-15
§MiG-15 flown at Wright Patterson, Eglin,
PAX River
§ Flew against B-47, B-36, F-84 and F-86

1969: The MiG-17F’s Turn

What We Had
HAVE DRILL
Instrumented
Periscope
SCAN FIX radar
172 sorties
HAVE FERRY
Back-up A/C
No Periscope
No radar
52 Sorties



U.S. Test Equipment
AFFTC personnel replaced the clock, airspeed indicator,
altimeter, and accelerometer, plus installed a machmeter
-Installed voice tape recorder in cockpit and photo recorder
for instruments in the nose compartment
-14-channel oscillograph mounted in gun platform where
ammo boxes were. It weighed 75 pounds
-Recorded fuel flow/temp, OAT, engine RPM, airspeed/altitude,
control surface positions, attitude, roll-pitch-yaw rates,
accelleration and the EVENT button


MiG-17 Cockpit Modifications

G meter
Intervalometer
Airspeed
Altimeter
Machmeter
EGT/Tach
Tape recorder
UHF radio
OSC/Event


U.S. Test Equipment
AFFTC personnel replaced the clock, airspeed indicator,
altimeter, and accelerometer, plus installed a machmeter
-Installed voice tape recorder in cockpit and photo recorder
for instruments in the nose compartment
-14-channel oscillograph mounted in gun platform where
ammo boxes were. It weighed 75 pounds
-Recorded fuel flow/temp, OAT, engine RPM, airspeed/altitude,
control surface positions, attitude, roll-pitch-yaw rates,
accelleration and the EVENT button


The MiG-17F cockpit

Antiquated design
Cramped for a man
over 6 feet and the seat
was not adjustable
-Excellent periscope


Testing The MiG-17

300-350 KIAS - MiG’s best speed advantage, we couldn’t outturn it
450 KIAS+ Speed is Life
No smoke trail
SCAN FIX lit the AAA warning light
Combat radius –
115nm clean
215nm w/tanks
Aircraft was extremely reliable!! 4-5 sorties a day


37mm/23mm Gun Tests



Don’t Get Hit By Them


Technical Test Lessons Learned
Exploited SRD-1 SCAN FIX, SRO-2 IFF, VHF radio, SIRENA RWR – Learned a Lot!
VK-1F engine
Infrared/Acoustic/Radar Measurements
Vulnerability Study
Hydraulics – Who needs them?
She’s hard to steer – differential braking
375 gallons internal fuel - 20-25 minutes
Hard to see!! Little and clean
Above 375 KIAS – Dutch Roll


HAVE FERRY


Good Stuff to Know
-Above Mach .85 control very heavy (2 hands)…8.0g limit
-In 224 flights, only 23 major discrepancies occurred and only two missions
were lost
-They spun it once (fully developed) during flight test. Spun to the left, full right
rudder did nothing for four turns..popped stick full forward (to white line)
..recovered after 23 seconds/3,000 ft
-Controls did not have pitch, roll, or yaw stability augmentation and only the ailerons were hydraulically boosted. Rudder/elevator manual
-HAVE DRILL was Lim-5 serial number 1C-07-18, built in Poland in 1956-57.
The LIS-5 engine was serial number 559128
Aircraft Arrival First Flight Total sorties
HAVE DRILL 27 Jan 69 17 Feb 69 172/131.3 hrs/55 days
HAVE FERRY 12 Mar 69 9 Apr 69 52/37.7 hrs/20 days
22

Assessment
1968: The Mystery MiG-21
javascript:void(0)
Publish Post

Project HAVE DOUGHNUT

MiG-21 Flight Test

MiG 17 in museum

 

上调人民币存款准备金

昨天央行宣布年内第八次上调存款准备金率至13%———

　　昨天，央行宣布从2007年10月25日起，上调存款类金融机构人民币存款准备金率0.5个百分点。这是今年以来第八次上调存款准备金率。届时，存款类金融机构将执行13%的存款准备金率，这一比率已达到1988年创下的13%的存款准备金率历史高位。央行称，此举是为加强银行体系流动性管理，抑制货币信贷过快增长。花旗银行中国高级经济学家沈明高博士认为，在流动性过剩的局面下，央行存款准备金率还有可能上调四次，最高调至15%。超过15%，对银行资金成本的影响将十分巨大，在全球范围内也很罕见。

　　■流动性依然过剩上调在意料之中

　　就在前一天，央行发布的三季度货币信贷数据充分显示了9月份流动性过剩状况依然严峻。今年1－9月累计净投放现金1958亿元，同比多投放302亿元。同时，新增贷款速度依然偏快。9月份人民币贷款增加2835亿元，同比多增635亿元。至此，1－9月份金融机构人民币各项贷款增加3.36万亿元，同比多增6073亿元，已经超过了去年全年创造的3.18万亿新增贷款纪录

Korean MiG 15

Soviet MiG 15 fleet

 

Klimov Fighter Aircraft Engines (part 1/2)

桃花源記 陶淵明

桃花源記

陶淵明
晉太元中，武陵人，捕魚為業，緣溪行，忘路之遠近；忽逢桃花林，夾岸數百步，

中無雜樹，芳草鮮美，落英繽紛；漁人甚異之。復前行，欲窮其林。林盡水源，便得一山。

山有小口，彷彿若有光，便舍船，從口入。 初極狹，纔通人；復行數十步，豁然開朗。土地平曠，屋舍儼然。

有良田、美池、桑、竹之屬，阡陌交通，雞犬相聞。其中往來種作，男女衣著，悉如外人；黃髮垂髫，並佁然自樂。

見漁人，乃大驚，問所從來；具答之。便要還家，設酒、殺雞、作食。村中聞有此人，咸來問訊。

自云：「先世避秦時亂，率妻子邑人來此絕境，不復出焉；遂與外人間隔。」問「今是何世？」乃不知有漢，無論魏、晉！

此人一一為具言所聞，皆歎惋。餘人各復延至其家，皆出酒食。停數日，辭去。此中人語云：「不足為外人道也。」

既出，得其船，便扶向路，處處誌之。及郡下，詣太守，說如此。太守即遣人隨其往，尋向所誌，遂迷不復得路。
南陽劉子驥，高尚士也，聞之，欣然規往，未果，尋病終。後遂無問津者。

The First Mig 25-31

Definition of Money supplyAnswers.com

http://www.answers.com/library/Investment+Dictionary-cid-596983358
M1: Definition and Much More from Answers.com: "M1 Narrowest measure of the Money Supply. M1 includes currency held by the public, plus travelers' checks, demand deposits, other checkable deposits (including negotiable order of withdrawal (NOW) accounts, Automatic Transfer Service (ATS) accounts, and credit union share draft accounts)."
M2: Definition and Much More from Answers.com: "M2 A category within the money supply that includes M1 in addition to all time-related deposits, savings deposits, and non-institutional money-market funds. Investopedia Says: M2 is a broader classification of money than M1. Economists use M2 when looking to quantify the amount of money in circulation and trying to explain different economic monetary conditions."
M3: Definition and Much More from Answers.com: "M3 The category of the money supply that includes M2 as well as all large time deposits, institutional money-market funds, short-term repurchase agreements, along with other larger liquid assets. Investopedia Says: This is the broadest measure of money; it is used by economists to estimate the entire supply of money within an economy."

MIG 25 Alert

People's Republic of China National Anthem

MiG 15 long video

http://www.guba.com/watch/3000024266

The MiG-15 from the airbase Bechyně

MiG 15 Green

Fábrica Militar de Aviones, Pulqui I, Pulqui II

Sukhoi SU-30 Flight Demonstration

Flow Vizualization by Condensation

Gallery of Fluid Mechanics: Flow Vizualization by Condensation: "The forces generated by a particular flow are very often the most important quantity of practical interest but usually remain 'hidden' without pressure gauges and other instrumentation. However, the condensation of ambient water vapor can be used to identify and observe regions of low pressure generated in many important air flows. While such condensation is somewhat rare, it is naturally occurring, i.e., no man-made instrumentation is required, can be directly related to the physics, and is aesthetically appealing. The physical mechanism leading to condensation (in typical airflows) is always caused by a significant lowering of the air pressure and therefore the temperature of the air and any water vapor present in the air. If the ambient air is sufficiently humid, , the drop in the temperature is enough to place the water vapor in the two-phase regime resulting in the formation of a cloud. Condensation clouds can be generated in a number of specific situations. Each visualizes a different physical (flow) effect. A brief discussion of a few of the most common situations are found at the links below:

• Condensation due to vortices.
• Condensation due to lift.
• Condensation due to the Prandtl-Glauert Singularity.
• Condensation due to a blast wave.

MiG15 v1

MiG 15 in the air

Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-17 Central Texas Airshow, USA, May 2003

SA-75M Dvina missile systems

MILITARIA JOWITKA
http://milparade.udm.ru/28/101.htm
Commenting on this victory at a meeting with a Soviet delegation and senior officials from among Soviet military specialists, held on February 7, 1973, in Hanoi, Vietnam's Minister of National Defense, General of the Army Wo Nguyen Ziap said: "But for the victory of the air defense missile (ADM) forces over B-52s near Hanoi, the Paris negotiations (between North Vietnam and the USA) would have delayed and the peace agreement would not have been signed. In other words, the victory of the ADM forses was also a political victory."

fter the United States launched regular bombings of North Vietnam, the Soviet Union began to supply North Vietnam's Air Defense Forces with SA-75M Dvina missile systems. Vietnamese combat crews were trained largely at Soviet training centers and military schools. In addition, the USSR sent its military specialists to North Vietnam to render practical assistance to its troops.

Vietnam's anti-aircraft missile troops first saw action on July 25, 1965, shooting down three U.S. aircraft in a day. Soon the anti-aircraft missile troops began to play a major role in Vietnam's united Air Defense Forces and Air Force. They ended the war with a major victory, downing 31 U.S. B-52 strategic bombers near North Vietnam's capital Hanoi from December 12 to 29, 1972.

Fragment of a US B-52 bomber shot down in Hanoi on December 26, 1972

Commenting on this victory at a meeting with a Soviet delegation and senior officials from among Soviet military specialists, held on February 7, 1973, in Hanoi, Vietnam's Minister of National Defense, General of the Army Wo Nguyen Ziap said: "But for the victory of the air defense missile (ADM) forces over B-52s near Hanoi, the Paris negotiations (between North Vietnam and the USA) would have delayed and the peace agreement would not have been signed. In other words, the victory of the ADM forses was also a political victory."

After the war, the government of North Vietnam gave the highest assessment to these troops, awarding them the title Heroic Arm.
Between 1965 and 1972, 95 air defense missile systems and 7,658 missiles were delivered to North Vietnam. By the end of the war (January 1973), 6,806 missiles had been expended or found faulty. There remained 39 combat-ready missile systems.

SA-75M Dvina was the first mobile ADM system. It was designed by the Almaz Research and Production Association (General DesignerA. Raspletin). The missile was designed by the Fakel Design Bureau (General Designer P. Grushin). The system was ordered and supplied by the Defense Ministry's 4th Main Directorate headed by Air Force Colonel General G. Baidukov.
By the time the Vietnam war began, the system's combat characteristics were not high enough to combat U.S. warplanes. However, at the initial stage of the war, Dvina shot down many U.S. tactical and shipborne aircraft. In 1965, the per taget missile rate was very low v one or two missiles per downed plane. The high efficiency was due to the surprise factor.
To reduce losses, the Americans began to adapt themselves to the situation. As they revealed Dvina's shortcomings, they took tactical and then technical measures, such as approaching target areas at low altitudes, maneuvering in zones of fire, and using more intensively protection jamming from EB-66 jammer-carrying aircraft. The measures produced good results. By mid-1966, Vietnamese troops already fired three or four missiles to shoot down a U.S. plane. By 1967, the Americans had developed and installed on attack aircraft the interference equipment which worked on ADM systems' channel frequency. The move reduced the Dvina system's efficiency still further. Things grew worse by the end of 1967 when the United States began to install on its attack aircraft additional missile guidance channel jamming equipment which caused missiles to go out of control and fall down.

Table 1. Firings against different types of targets in 1972

	B-52	F-4	F-105	A-6	A-7	F-111	Recon. drones	Others
Number of engagements	223	574	28	145	140	5	20	20
Number of missiles fired	443	1,070	50	222	220	7	27	20
Number of planes shot down	51	223	9	59	57	1	6	15
Average missile expenditure	8.6	4.7	5.5	3.7	3.8	7	4.5	1.3

The efficiency of the ADM forces was reduced also after U.S. aviation attacked their positions with high-explosive and pellet cassette bombs and projectiles of the Shrike type sensitive to electronic emissions.

Austrian Business Cycle Theory

Austrian Business Cycle Theory

According to Ludwig von Mises and his followers, the boom-bust cycle is not inherent in the free market, but is rather caused by the government's interference in the credit markets, specifically its manipulation of interest rates. The government causes the boom period when it injects new credit into the system (pushing down rates), and then the unsustainable, non-economic investment projects put into motion necessitate a bust at some future date. (Here is a reading plan for this topic.)

Generally speaking, the chart indicates an inverse relationship between the two series. This accords with the commonsense view that cutting interest rates provides a stimulus while hiking them is contractionary. However, what the Austrian approach provides is the understanding of the real forces behind the boom-bust cycle. In other words, most financial commentators think that today's interest rates affect today's economic growth, end of story. But if a previous boom period has led to massive malinvestments, there must be a bust period to liquidate the various projects (for which there is an inadequate capital structure to complete).

To put it another way, many commentators seem to believe that if the Fed held interest rates low indefinitely, then we'd never have high unemployment, just rampant price inflation. And yet, the recent experience shows that this is dead wrong. The Fed didn't cause the recent problems by "responsibly" hiking interest rates. No, rates had been steady at 5.25% for some time, and then the housing bubble burst and the mortgage market faltered, thus "forcing" the Fed to take action.

Looking back at the chart above, we can see why the worst may be yet to come. In (price) inflation-adjusted terms, the early-2000s levels of the actual fed funds rate is the lowest since the Carter years. And many readers may recall the severe recessions of 1980 and 1982 that followed that period.

Real Yr/Yr GDP Growth (blue, right)
vs. Real Effective Fed Funds Rate (red, left)

How fereral funds rate affect interest rate?

The Worst Recession in 25 years? - Mises Institute: On September 18 the Fed cut its target for the fed funds rate by 50 basis points (0.5 percentage points), from 5.25% to 4.75%. The move surprised many analysts who had been expecting a more modest cut of 25 basis points.

For those versed in the Austrian theory of the business cycle, as developed by Ludwig von Mises and elaborated by Friedrich Hayek, the aggressive Fed "stimulus" is ominous indeed. Not only will it pave the way for much higher price inflation than Americans have seen in decades, but it will also exacerbate what could be the worst recession in twenty-five years.

How the Fed "Sets" Interest Rates

Before discussing the history of interest rate manipulation by the Fed, a primer will be useful. When people say the Fed did such-and-such to "interest rates," they are specifically referring to the Fed's target for the federal funds rate. The Federal Reserve itself is neither a borrower nor a lender in this market; the fed funds rate is the interest rate that banks charge each other for overnight loans of reserves. Recall that in our fractional reserve banking system, the Fed mandates that banks keep a certain amount of reserves (either cash in the vault or deposits with the Fed itself) in order to "back up" their total outstanding deposits. At any given time, some banks have more reserves than they need, while others have less. The banks with excess reserves can thus loan them to those with deficient reserves, and the (annualized) interest rate is the fed funds rate.

Now a further complication: the Fed itself does lend reserves to banks, but it does this at the so-called "discount window," and the relevant interest rate is the discount rate. In recent years the Fed has traditionally maintained a margin between the fed funds target and the discount rate, in order to encourage banks to borrow from each other, rather than coming hat in hand to the (more expensive) Fed. Some readers may recall in mid-August that the Fed slashed the discount rate (not the fed funds rate) and encouraged banks to borrow from it in an effort to restore liquidity and calm to the credit markets.

It is clear enough how the Federal Reserve can set the discount rate: since the Fed is the one loaning these reserves, it can insist on any rate it wants. (Of course, if the rate were too high it might not get any takers.) But how does the Fed influence the federal funds rate, if it doesn't directly participate in this market? Is the target enforced the way, say, the government in some areas controls apartment rents or minimum wages?

The process is much more complicated. Very briefly: the Fed can control the quantity of reserves held by banks, and thus indirectly can control the price the banks charge each other for lending out reserves. If the Fed thinks banks are charging each other too much for reserves — in other words, if the actual fed funds rate is higher than the target — then the Fed will engage in an "open market operation," buying assets such as US Treasury bonds from banks. The Fed pays for these purchases by adding numbers to the accounts the selling banks have with the Fed.

This is the precise point of entry for the new money that the Fed creates out of thin air. To repeat: When the Fed buys (say) $1 million in bonds from Bank XYZ, Bank XYZ surrenders ownership of the bonds but sees that its deposits of reserves at the Fed go up by $1 million. But the Fed didn't transfer this money from some other account. No, it simply increased the electronic entry representing Bank XYZ's total reserves on deposit. There is no offsetting debit anywhere in the banking system. Bank XYZ now has $1 million more in reserves, while no other bank has less. Bank XYZ is now free to go out and loan more reserves to other banks, or to make loans to its own customers. (In fact, due to the fractional-reserve system, the bank could make up to $10 million in new loans to customers.) The money supply has increased, putting upward pressure on prices measured in dollars.

But back to our original theme, the injection of reserves obviously increases their supply and thus (other things equal) pushes down the rate Bank XYZ will charge other banks who might want to borrow reserves from it. The open market operation has thus achieved the Fed's goal of pushing the actual fed funds rate down to the desired target. Of course, going the opposite way, if the actual fed funds rate were too low, the Fed would sell assets to the banks, thereby destroying some of the total reserves in the system.

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